Concept Assignment for F M WaughConcept 33: Information and attention
"In the era of the 'attention economy', readers and users of internet information must be carefully craft, in their own minds, the kind of metadata which will - almost instinctively - 'fit' with the metadata of the information sources they want, so that - in the few brief moments of initial exchange, when a seeker of information encounters information being sought, rapid, effective judgments are made that 'pay off' in terms of further reading, accessing and saving." (Allen, n.d.)Blackwell (1999) explains Latham's definition of an "attention economy" using "information is not a particularly scarce resource.... attention is the scarce resource which must be allocated in a developing global economy". A large body of research literature has been produced to apply this to computer programming, web pages for e-commerce and user behaviour in accessing information on the Internet.
Gigerenzer and Goldstein (1996) reported Simon's contention that "information-process systems typically need to satisfice rather than optimize", where he defined "satisficing" as "a blend of sufficing and satisfying". The user needs to satisfice, or access the topics he requires in the minimum time and with the minimum effort.
Access is achieved using metadata, the keywords in a document. These can be defined by the writer in the header and title of the web document. More usually Search Engines use mechanical means (crawlers) to isolate all the words users are likely to use in searching for the document. While this can be a very useful facility it relies on the writer using similar terms to those used in the search. It also produces enormous databases of documents. One keyword can elicit a wide range sources covering a large number of topics of differing academic reliability and applicability. The problem for the user is to construct his keyword search, using Boolean terminology, so that he has to peruse the minimum number of documents in order to satisfice his needs.
In addition, Search engines use different methods of calculating the relative importance of the web pages retrieved. They have different methods of calculating these, using factors such as the number of 'hits' on the page, the number of times the word appears in the document, etc. This further complicates the user's choice.
Neilson's research (2001) into user searches for e-commerce sites revealed that their success rates for the first, second and third quiries were 51%, 32% and 18% respectively. He concludes that "if users don't find the result with their first query, they are progressively less and less likely to succeed with additional searches."
I feel that the answer to this problem lies in user education. With each new generation being more comfortable with using Web 2 technologies it becomes important that they be introduced to more efficient methods. The most obvious of these is to construct the search using Boolean terminology or the Advanced Search methods available in most modern browsers. However, in my experience, a vast majority of users have difficulty distinguishing between "and", "or", "not" and "nor".
Gigenzer and Goldstein (1996) researched alternative algorithms in order to find the most efficient method for the general user, with minimum background knowledge, to solve a particular problem. Their results,extrapolated to web searches suggest that the Boolean approach is not suitable for most users. The "Take the Best Algorithm" involves the user producing two keywords for his search and inspecting the results. This will enable him to make one of three choices. If only one produces the best results the other is discarded. If neither produces a recognizable result then both are discarded and a new search instigated. If both produce results of equal rating, choose the one that has "highest ranking from memory", or fits the best. If both seem equally applicable, choose at random. Surprising they found this to be the fastest and most accurate method for people with little background information - a bulk of users.
Bibliography (part Annotated )
Allen, M. (n.d.).
Net11 The internet - Communications: Internet Communications Concepts Document. Retrieved April 20, 2009 from http://lms.curtin.edu.au/webapps/portal/
Blackwell, A.F. & Green, T.R.G. (1999).
Investment of Attention as an Analytic Approach to Cognitive Dimensions. Retrieved April 24, 2009, from http://www.citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/
This article discusses the scarcity of (and hence value of) attention in all forms of computer usage, both from programmer and user perspectives. It defines the "attentional locus" of each type of task in terms of the user's perceived "estimated potential value, estimated cost and estimated risk". The explanations are detailed but simple to understand.
The authors are academics based in the Universities of Cambridge and Leeds respectively. They are leaders in this research and their many articles are cited in many peer review publications.
The concepts, while not specifically discussing metadata searching, provided an excellent background for my discussion of the user attention problems when searching the web.
Gigerenzer, G & Goldstein, D.G. (1996). Reasoning the Fast and Frugal way: Models of Bounded Rationality.
Psychological Review, vol 103, No.4, 650-669. Retrieved May 8, 2009, from the Copernic Agent Basic database.
The authors provide a summary of their research into algorithms to "enable quick decision making". After a detailed comparison of "classical rationality methods" with practical "satisficing" methods they discuss the results of their experiments using the latter. They found that the "Take the Best" algorithm produced very high accuracy when compared to the "Take the Last" and "Minimalist" algorithms, particularly when the user had little background knowledge of the topic.
The academics are based in the Max Planck Institute for Psychological Research and the University of Chicago. It is a treatise (with detailed statistical analysis) of their simulated experiments.
The comparison provided a factual basis to the efficiency of metadata searching and hence user behaviour and satisfaction.
Neilson, J. (2001).
Search: Visible and Simple. Retrieved May 12, 2009 from http://www.useit.com/alertbox/20010513.html
Concept 8. The Invisibility of Difference
"The daily practice of electronic communication is shaped by over-familiarity with one's own computer system, and a tendency to assume that - as with much more established forms of communication - everyone is operating within compatible and similar systems. When in doubt, seek to communicate in ways that are readable and effective for all users, regardless of their particular systems."(Allen. n.d.)Due to the proliferation of small portable devices, coupled with the work ethic that employees and data be always available, this concept has important implications in all current business practice.
The size of portable devices range from a laptop computer with a large screen to mobile phones. Neilson (2009) lists 85% of the latter users with tiny screen versions with limited facilities, followed by Smart phones with larger screens and then full screen (iPhone) type with touch screen.
A comparison of the Nokia (2009) and Apple (2009) home pages reveal that respectively:
* the screen sizes vary from 2.6" to 3.5"
* the screen resolutions vary from (320 x 240) to (480 x 320)
These can be compared to a small office computer with a 22" (small) size and a screen resolution of (1024 x 768). The visual display and the usability are obviously completely different.
Forman and Zahorjan (1994) identified that problems occurred because " title bars and borders either consume significant ... screen space or, if reduced, become difficult to operate with a pointing device". Neilson's test results in 2009 indicate this is still a substantial problem, although the new iPhone literature suggests a multiple finger activation could improve this. Both groups comment on the necessity of continual scrolling to read the text. Stacked windows provided another irritation. Neilson reported such poor usability that users only performed a narrow range of activities.
Kingery and Furuta (1997) identified very real problems with user's ability to perceive words when the screen resolution, and font size (24 t0 14) and type (Ariel, Times New Roman and Gothic) were compared. The smaller the font and screen resolution the the less the users absorbed the words and their meaning. Ariel and Times New Roman proved to be superior to other fonts for comprehension.
Communication in this climate and with this disparity in devices would seem to suggest that businesses need to educate their employees in effective communication. Factors to consider would be the length of lines in messages, the font type used, the construction of sentences to use the web usability formula of dot points for information and the top-down principle of writing (the most salient information first). I feel this has to progress further still, with employees being forced to view their communication on both types of devices until they can mentally visualize what a large screen presentation would convert to on a mobile phone.
Similarly, business promoters and advertisers should continually compare their, often elaborate, web sites constructed on the wide screen to the mobile phone visualization. Only when this practice becomes wide-spread will they start producing new versions of these for mobile users. They will have to consider a visual presentation using more menu and dot point type displays and a format that requires users to scroll as little as possible to easily obtain the information required. They will also need to carefully test the font type and sizes to ensure that their users are able to absorb the words and their meanings more easily.
Bibliography (part Annotated)
Allen, M. (n.d.).
Net11 The Internet - communications: Internet Communications Concepts Document. Retrieved April 20, 2009 from http://lms.curtin.edu.au/webapps/portal/
Apple. (2009)
iPhone 3G.. Retrieved May 15, 2009 from http://www.apple.com/au/iphone/features/
Forman, G & Zahorjan, J. (1994)
Computing Milieux -The Challenges of Mobile Computing. Retrieved May 14, 2009 from http://reference.kfupm.edu.sa/content/c/h/the_challenges_of_mobile_computing__48838.pdf
Forman and Zahorjan, researchers in mobile and parallel computing at the University of Washington, detail the technical problems encountered in programming mobile devices to enable users to access, download and store information. It covers areas of address migration, portability, security, privacy, download interuptions and user interface.
Although the article has a technical bias it is a useful resource in isolating concerns to senders with regard to security, privacy and user interface. In particular, the problems of screen resolution, toolbars, stacking of windows and the accessability of icons is discussed in detail. The effect of bandwidth on video conferencing (and images) is also considered.
Kingery, D & Furita, R. (1997) Skimming Electronic Newspaper Headlines: a Study of Typeface, Point Size, Screen Resolution, and Monitor Size. Information Processing & Management. Vol 33, No.5, 685-696. Retrieved May 12, 2009 from http://scholar.google.com.au/schhp?client=firefox-a&rls=org.mozilla:en-GB:official&hl=en&tab=ws
Texas University academics, Kingery and Furita, detail their research results into experiments into the readability and recall of issues of users using a variety of combinations of screen resolution, font type and size, and monitor size. They used a variety of headings taken at random from local newspapers. They reported the most legible fonts were Times New Roman and Arial.
Although this is early research, it is particularly applicable in the current climate of extensive use of mobile devices with their reduced resolution and screen size. Of particular interest were the graphs of results of correctly perceived words and its implication in the exchange of information via mobile networks.
Neilson, J. (2009).
Mobile Web 2009 = Desktop Web 1998. Retrieved May 14, 2009 from http://www.useit.com/alertbox/mobile-usability.html
Neilson, J. (2005).
Ten Usability Heuristics. Retrieved May 14, 2009 from http://www.useit.com/papers/heuristic/heuristic_list.html
Nokia Australia. (2009)
Find Devices. Retrieved May 15, 2009 from http://www.nokia.com.au/A4519005
Concept 31 : Hypertext: Links or Structure
"While the WWW depends on hypertext, most of it uses hypertext merely for navigation (as in the first kind). Individual documents and even sites generally look much like linear, pap-printed materials. Bur, the whole of the web is rather more like the loose, unstructured 'hypertext' of the second kind. This suggests that hypertext is about both linking in the traditional way, but more effectively; and about structuring in a completely new way, based on this technology." (Allen, n.d.)Net theory was developed in the late seventeenth century as an area of pure mathematics. Early in the twentieth century applied mathematicians realized that the simple solutions developed to solve these complex problems provided powerful methods for modern activities. User friendly computer programs have been developed, with the result that they are now in regular, everyday use to solve problems involving:
* maps (shortest route between two points, most economical and efficient routes for salesmen, garbage trucks, etc.)
* determining the minimum (or maximum) costs of projects
* determining the critical path of a large project - identifying the timing and sequences necessary for efficient supply of goods and services
Their strength lies in identifying all the tasks, or information, in a particular project and providing a visual representation between them using arrows to indicate the direction of movement and nodes (points at the start and end of each link).
The computer revolution has resulted in an information explosion where managers risk drowning in detailed data and scientists are buried under a mountain of technical reports. (Neilson, 1995)
This problem provides an accessibility problem of mammoth proportions, one that is ideally suited to solving with network methods. I think that it is vital if these resources are to be used with any degree of efficiency. However, the size of the data to be correlated and the nature of the information sources to be accessed poses it's own special problems.
The arrow/node diagrams with large amounts of data can be complex, with many levels of sub-diagrams for each node (or piece of information). Many users would not be able to easily find the most efficient path to explore this labyrinth. The current use of menus in more linear arrangements is being used and provide a partial solution. Interestingly, Studies by Krietzber and Shneiderman (as cited by Neilson, 1995) showed users presented with choices of a large number of small nodes performed better than ones using a small number of large nodes.
I have tried to solve the navigation problem user's encounter when deciding where they are in a small linear network, and where they have been previously. This seems to be of particular concern as the size of the network grows.
Defining the start and end of arrows is relatively easy in the practical examples used above. With documents and vidoes it is not necessarily straight-forward. Do you link to the start of the document or video or do you provide multiple links to inner sections? (Neilson, 1995)
Computer programs are already available that can quickly determine the best path through the network in order to locate various facets of information. However, defining user parameters and needs (often when they are not clearly understood by the user) is a further problem to be automated and solved.
It appears that a variety of solutions have been used to date with varying degrees of success. If we are to make some order and sense of the existing information it is imperitive that these be standardizes into a Protocol that will enable use and transport between documents.
Bibliography (part annotated)
Allen, M. (n.d.).
Net11 The internet - Communications: Internet Communications Concepts Document. Retrieved April 20, 2009 from http://lms.curtin.edu.au/webapps/portal/
Neilson, J. (1995).
Architectural component of Hypertext Systems. Retrieved May 16, 2009 from http://www.useit.com/papers/hypertext_theory/
Neilson, a leading expert in Web usability, discusses the structures of current hypertext documents. He looks at the three levels - user interface, "Hypertext Abstract Machine" and the data base level. He details:
* the problems of each, explaining the variety of methods currently being used to solve these and suggesting best case scenarios.
* Hypertext Engines that provide the basis for programmers to simply add the data to get the hypertext document they require.
* Open Hypertext in the context of fully aware, partly aware, and unaware user catagories, detailing the problems and strengths of each.
This article provides a very useful overall theoretical introduction to this area of computing.
Neilson, J.
Multimedia and Hypertext: the Internet and Beyond. (3rd. ed.) (1995)(pp 1-18). Oxford, Morgan Kaufmann. Retrieved May 16, 2009 from Google Books at http://books.google.com.au/books?q=multimedia+and+hypertext&btnG=Search+Books .
In Chapter 1 Neilson gives an overview of the structure of a hypertext document. He classifies the document as having a non-sequential format, and compares it to normal documents and the sequential, linear format of most current web pages. The particular emphasis of this article is the powerful possibilities available when this format links a variety of media, for example video, sound and text files. He detils many practical areas in which such documents are used.
Chapter 2 deals with the format of a document, detailing the net diagrams used. He details the problems with defining links when constructing these for high usability.
Concept 26: Privacy and Security
"The Internet is a profoundly 'open' system and advanced Internet users are cautious about either accepting or sending material from and to unknown sources and are careful in releasing information about themselves in any form. Conceptually, the Internet challenges us to take greater responsibility for the protection of privacy and security than perhaps we are used to when dealing with the media." (Allen, n.d.)Belanger, Hiller and Smith (2002) found that users usually considered privacy and security as one entity. I will use their distinctions between the two as a basis for this report. Privacy "is the ability to manage information about oneself" or "control over secondary use of information". Security "refers to consumer concerns with sharing information online due to expectations of threats to online security, including fear of hacker and informational theft". For a user to be responsible in their use they need to be aware of the issues and be able to understand what needs to be done.
Security
"Security mechanisms are only effective when used correctly" (Whitten & Tygar, 1998). I have found ignorance is widespread even among relatively heavy users of the Internet. Wireless routers are a particular problem. They have three progressive levels of security in order to prevent others from recognising that a connection is transmitting and to prevent them connecting to it. It is not uncommon to have information passed around campuses or workplaces about geographical sites that are vulnerable. From experience with ordinary users (and their lack of awareness) it is obvious that Whitten and Tygar's four levels of usability instructions are not adhered to by a vast number of router manufacturers. They suggest that users should be:
* "reliably made aware of the security tasks they need to perform"
* understand how to perform the tasks
* avoid making dangerous errors
* "comfortable with the interface" in order to "continue using it".
If you add to this the readability level of most instruction manuals, written by programmers using computing acronyms and terminology, it is obvious that many manufacturers are not providing the level of support necessary for effective protection.
Email programs are also offenders. The tools are present in most programs but, again, the interface is written by programmers and hence the measures available are not understood or used. Although tool bars are set up with icons and menus even a relatively heavy user need to hunt through Help files in order to understand what they aim to achieve and how to impliment them. Most users do not do this until they have a serious problem.
Information on all these issues should be supplied at the first use of the program, with the interface being written by someone who can communicate in the language of the average user.
Privacy
Privacy is invaded at many levels of user understanding. Installing Microsoft operating systems requires registration. For installed OEM software this involves identification numbers of component parts of the user's computer being routinely identified and stored with the serial number of the program in order to prevent multiple use of the program. Detailed information, although less intrusive, is involved in most other program installation.
Government, on-line banking and finance sections are usually more careful of user's data as they are liable by law for any breaches. However, with the wide spread use of off-shore data entry and storage facilities these are by no means secure from data mining and abuse.
Belanger, Hiller and Smith (2002) found that on-line commerce revolved around trustworthiness of the supplier and computer systems, with the readiness of consumers to provide personal details depending upon the supplier's ability to handle the sale, perceived integrity and perceived benevolance.
Bibliography (part annotated)
Allen, M. (n.d.).
Net11 The internet - Communications: Internet Communications Concepts Document. Retrieved April 20, 2009 from http://lms.curtin.edu.au/webapps/portal/
Belanger, F, Hiller, J & Smith W.J. (2002).
Trustworthiness in Electronic Commerce: the Role of Privacy, Security and Site Authorities. Retrieved on May 20, 2009 from Science Direct Database at http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VG3-475RJF6-1&_user=10&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_sort=d&view=c&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=e45fe2139a8450c75ee0b1dd39a1d474
This detailed report provides an extensive summary of the existing literature on the privacy and security for suppliers aiming to establish a trusting relationship with prospective consumers. Issues of privacy and security, third party verification, security seals and security statements are dealt with in detail. The authors conducted an experiment to determine how users rated these features when considering the trustworthiness of the supplier and computer interface. They found that although most "express a desire for privacy and security" that, after deciding to purchase, they did not consider these options.
This is a highly cited resource written by academics from the Center for Global Electronic Commerce at Virginia Polytechnic. It formed the basis of my report.
Clifton, C. & Marks, D. (1996). Security and Privacy Implications of Data Mining.
Proceedings of the 1996 ACM SIGMOD Workshop on Data Mining and Knowledge Discovery. Retrieved on May 20, 2009 from Curtin Gecko Database.
Whitten, A & Tygar, J.D. (1998).
Usability of Security: A Case Study. Retrieved on May 20, 2009 from http://66.102.1.104/scholar?hl=en&lr=&client=firefox-a&q=cache:8VjpCP26VJAJ:reports-archive.adm.cs.cmu.edu/anon/anon/1998/CMU-CS-98-155.pdf+usability+of+security
On the premise that "security mechanisms are only effective when used correctly", the authors investigated the usability of most manuals and programs involved in computer security. They found the two fields of usability and security were different specialities and hence it was very rare to find a writer with the skills to impart the necessary information at a level that the normal user could comprehend and apply. They isolated four requirements that need to be met if the information is to understandable and usable.
This article, by Computer Science academics at the University of California, provided a valuable background to the security section of my report.
